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Islam

Overview and Comparison with Biblical Christianity

December 22, 2016
Copyright © 2006, Ronald W. Leigh

Biblical quotations are from the New International Version unless otherwise noted.
Quotations from the Koran are from the translation by M. H. Shakir unless otherwise noted.

A.  Introduction and Terms

The religion of Islam, "founded" by the prophet Muhammad, the "Apostle," requires its adherents, Muslims, to submit to the only God, named Allah in Arabic.

You may have heard that Christianity is the world's largest religion and Islam is the second largest.  However, that claim can be misleading.  The category "Christian" includes both Roman Catholics and Protestants.  Considering those subgroups separately we would conclude that Islam is the largest religion, claiming approximately 25% of the world's population.  In contrast, Roman Catholicism claims around 17% and Protestantism claims around 11%.

A map of Muslim population as a percentage of each country's total population is found at wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_by_country.  Less than one-fifth of Muslims are Arabs.  The highest concentration of Muslims is found in Arabia, South-west Asia, Northern Africa, and Indonesia.

The word Islam is the Arabic word for surrender or submission, referring to the Muslim's submission to the will of Allah.  In practice, the Muslim is also expected to submit to the Islamic leadership and to shariah law.

The word Muslim is an Arabic word meaning one who submits or surrenders.  The American pronunciation differs somewhat from the British pronunciation.  For the pronunciation according to the Cambridge dictionary, click here.  Some make the point that the "s" sound ("muslim") is preferred over the "z" sound ("muzlim"), as the latter sounds like the Arabic word for tyrant.

The word Allah is an Arabic word which is probably a combination of al (the) and ilah (god).  Ilah can be traced to an earlier Semitic word El, used in the Old Testament to refer to the God of Judaism and Christianity.  While some claim that Allah was originally the name of a moon god, the Koran speaks against worship of the moon (Sura 41:37).

The word mosque refers to a building in which Muslims regularly meet for prayer, worship, and other activities.

The word caliph refers to a successor of Muhammad, a spiritual leader and ruler of an Islamic region.  The word caliphate refers to the domain of the caliph, his government.

The holiest shrine in Islam is the Kaaba in the courtyard of the Sacred Mosque in Mecca.  This structure is roughly cube shaped and constructed of granite, approximately 40 feet high.  Muslims consider it the "House of God" and claim it was originally built by Ibrahim (Abraham) and his son Isma'il (Ishmael).  At the Eastern corner of the Kaaba is a circular silver frame containing the fragments of the "black stone," which supposedly dates back to the time of Adam.  This stone is kissed by Muslims during their pilgrimage to Mecca.

The idea of a personal relationship with God, which is so central in biblical Christianity, is missing from Islam.  Islam is primarily a religion of duty.  The principal focus of the Koran is on regulations for living and the principal focus of the Muslim is on submission.  Thus, the following statement of Jesus speaks loudly to the weary Muslim.

Come to me, all you who are weary and burdened, and I will give you rest.  (Matthew 11:28)

B.  Founding and Early Spread

Islam, which has roots in Zoroastrianism, Judaism, and Christianity, was "founded" by Muhammad during the early A.D. 600's in Arabia, the peninsula between the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf which separates Africa from southern Asia.  (The word founded is in quotation marks since Muslims view Islam as the true religion which existed from the beginning of creation, and was re-established by Muhammad and the Koran.)

The spelling "Muhammad" is perhaps the most common English spelling, but you will find other spellings including Mohammed, Mahomet, Muhamet, and many more.  This wide variety of spellings is due to the fact that the name comes into English through various Eastern languages in which it is ultimately based on a transliteration of four Arabic consonants (which can be represented as MHMD) with various vowels supplied between the consonants.

The Koran claims that Jesus predicted the coming of Muhammad as God's prophet/apostle (Sura 61:6).

Muhammad was born in Mecca (near the west coast of what is now Saudi Arabia) around A.D. 570 and died in 632.  Muhammad grew up among Arabs who continually fought bloody wars among the various tribes.  They also killed their unwanted female infants.  Muhammad began his public preaching around 613.

The people of Mecca had long worshipped many idols.  Their Kaaba stood amidst hundreds of idols and icons with many idols and icons inside as well, including representations of Jesus and Mary.  The people initially rejected Muhammad and his teachings.  He was forced to leave Mecca in 622 and flee north to Medina.  Medina was originally named Yathrib and later became known as Medina, that is, the City of the Prophet.  There Muhammad gained many followers and built an army.  The year A.D. 622 has been adopted by Muslims as the beginning of the Islamic religious calendar.

In 630 Muhammad and his followers returned and conquered Mecca, where Muhammad destroyed the idols and set up what might be called a religious dictatorship.  He also abolished infanticide (see Sura 16:58-59; 17:31).  It is said that at Muhammad's death he ascended to heaven from Jerusalem.  Mecca has remained the center of Islam to this day and is Islam's most holy city.

During the 120 years following Muhammad's conquest of Mecca, Islam spread well beyond the Arabian peninsula.  Those early conquests are divided, as shown on the following map, into three time periods:

• 613 - 632   The time of Muhammad's preaching and battles
• 633 - 661   The Rashidun ("rightly guided") Caliphate – the first four caliphs
• 662 - 750   The Umayyad Caliphate – the dynasty of the "sons of Umayya"

C.  The Koran

Surely We [Allah] have revealed it – an Arabic Quran – that you may understand. We narrate to you the best of narratives, by Our revealing to you this Quran, though before this you were certainly one of those who did not know. (Sura 12:2-3)

1.  History

The word Koran (often spelled Qur'an) means reading or recitation.

Muslims claim that Allah sent down the Koran to the "lowest heaven" on a particular night in the month of Ramadan (Sura 2:185).  Then, beginning in A.D. 610, the material in the Koran was revealed to Muhammad by the angel Gabriel a portion at a time over a period of 23 years.  Muhammad received the revelations during a kind of trance, after which he recited this material to others who memorized it portion by portion (Sura 17:106).

After Muhammad's death in 632, and especially after many who had memorized certain recitations were killed in the battle of Yamamah in 633, it was feared that the revelations might be lost.  So an attempt was made to collect them both from written sources and from people's memories.  Still, different versions of the Koran were in use in different regions of the Muslim empire.  One well known attempt to standardize the text was that of Uthman, the third Muslim Caliph.  His version was produced around 652, widely distributed, and competing versions were destroyed.  However, universal agreement on an "official" text has never been achieved.

The lack of an official Arabic text of the Koran is illustrated in later centuries by the Egyptian government, which needed a standard text for use in its schools.  One was produced under king Faruq, known as the Faruq edition, published in Cairo in 1924, revised 1936.  Nevertheless, other Muslim groups continue to disagree on what constitutes their official holy book.

The Arabic of the Koran is claimed to be the purest form of Arabic, but linguistic scholars identify many words borrowed from Hebrew, Syriac, Aramaic, Greek, and several other languages (see, for example, the table of non-Arabic words appended to the end of Dakdok's translation, mentioned in the section below entitled "Passages from the Koran …").

2.  Importance

According to Islam, Allah's language is Arabic and thus the Koran is regarded as the very words of Allah, not the words of Muhammad.  Thus it is considered to be infallible.  It is held to be an earthly copy of the heavenly "mother book," "well preserved tablet," or "book that is protected" (Sura 56:77-79).  In fact, to teach that the Koran was created rather than eternal has long been considered by Sunni Muslims to be a capital offense.  Since the Koran is highly regarded as the Word of God, it is memorized by many Muslims.

Islam is based primarily on the Koran, which is claimed as its final authority in all religious, legal, and civil matters.  Muhammad is considered to be the final prophet so that the Koran is considered Allah's final revelation to mankind.  The claim is that the earlier written revelations (the Law and the Gospels) have become corrupted making the Koran the only reliable revelation.

The Koran is characterized throughout by moralistic regulation, judgment, reward, and punishment.  Its most basic teaching is that there is only one God, Allah, who requires submission.

… it is revealed by Allah's knowledge and that there is no god but He; will you then submit?  (Sura 11:14)

The constant message is:  Believe in Allah alone and submit (do what he tells you to do in the Koran); if you believe and obey you will be raised to enjoy the pleasure of heaven, if not you will be defeated and suffer in hell.

The Koran also contains many historical stories, mostly borrowed from the Bible, which are often abbreviated and altered.  It is very repetitive in both moralizing and story telling.

3.  Structure

The Koran is a little shorter than the New Testament (based on English translations of both).  It consists of 114 chapters called "Suras" written in Arabic, being a combination of rhymes and prose. 

Each Sura in the Koran is given a title that indicates something unique within that Sura.  For example, Sura 2 is "The Cow," Sura 24 is "The Light," and Sura 67 is "The Kingdom."  All Suras (except the 9th) begin with "In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful."

Many passages end by stating particular attributes of Allah, especially that he is all-knowing, or that he is merciful (Sura 2:224-228; 3:31-34; 4:11-17; 4:23-45: 48:4, 14; etc.).

Verse length varies widely from as little as two words (Sura 80:14,16) to more than 250 words (Sura 2:282) depending, of course, on the particular English translation.

Curiously, many passages have God as the speaker referring to himself in the plural – "We," "Us," "Our" (Sura 2:3; 4:37; 10:73-76; 95:4-5; 37:72-150; etc.).  It is often claimed that this first person plural is the "royal we" or "plural of majesty" as found in a number of languages and used to emphasize dignity, splendor, or high position.

4.  Was Muhammad illiterate?

Muhammad's supposed illiteracy is based on Sura 7:157-158 which refers to him as "unlettered" (translations by Shakir, Yusuf Ali, and Rodwell) and "Prophet who can neither read nor write" (translation by Pickthall).  However, a better translation may be "heathen," or "gentile."  In fact, in both of these verses Muhammad is called "the Gentile prophet" (translation by Dakdok, a very literal translation) and the "Prophet of the common folk" (translation by Arberry).

5.  Translations of the Koran

The Muslims' high regard for the Arabic Koran discouraged them from translating the Koran into other languages. So very few translations appeared during the early history of Islam.  However, the Koran has been widely translated in more recent centuries due to the Arabic text being printed in Germany (1694) and widely circulated.  Notable English translations include those by

• George Sale (1734)
• J. M. Rodwell (1861)
• E. H. Palmer (1880)
• Marmaduke Pickthall (1930)
• Richard Bell (1937-39)
• Abdullah Yusuf Ali (1938)
• A. J. Arberry (1955)
• Ahmed Ali (1988)

Two additional English translations, by M. H. Shakir and Usama Dakdok, are cited and quoted at the end of this paper in the section entitled Passages from the Koran and Hadith.

Not every Arabic scholar finds the Koran to be clearly written, or even translatable, as Toby Lester points out:

… the Koran is often extremely difficult for contemporary readers – even highly educated speakers of Arabic – to understand.  (Toby Lester, "What is the Koran," Atlantic Monthly, Jan. 1999, available online here)

Lester then quotes the comments of Gerd R. Puin, a recognized authority on the Arabic language and the Koran:

The Koran claims for itself that it is 'mubeen,' or 'clear,' ….  But if you look at it, you will notice that every fifth sentence or so simply doesn't make sense. Many Muslims – and Orientalists – will tell you otherwise, of course, but the fact is that a fifth of the Koranic text is just incomprehensible. This is what has caused the traditional anxiety regarding translation. If the Koran is not comprehensible – if it can't even be understood in Arabic – then it's not translatable.  (loc. cit.)

6.  Chronological order of the Suras

The Suras are not in chronological order, but are arranged generally from the longer to the shorter.  Since these revelations were often pertinent to particular local events, battles, etc., it is helpful to know the chronological order of the revelations as shown below.  (This listing is compiled from several different sources.  Although there is general agreement on the order of the Suras, there is some dispute regarding the exact dates.)

Early Meccan 610-618		→	Middle Meccan 618-620		→	Late Meccan 620-622		→	Medinan 622-632
96 68 73 74 1 111 81 87 92 89 93 94 103 100 108	102 107 109 105 113 114 112 53 80 97 91 85 95 106 101		75 104 77 50 90 86 54 38 7 72 36 25 35 19 20	56 26 27 28 17 10 11 12 15 6 37 31 34 39 40		41 42 43 44 45 46 51 88 18 16 71 14 21	23 32 52 67 69 70 78 79 82 84 30 29 83		2 8 3 33 60 4 99 57 47 13 55 76 65 98	59 24 22 63 58 49 66 64 61 62 48 5 9 110

Notice that some of the Suras placed at the end of the Koran (most of 91 – 114) were given during the first (Early Meccan) period, while some of the Suras placed at the beginning of the Koran (2 – 5) were given during the final (Medinan) period.

7.  The doctrine of abrogation, and Satanic verses

The Koran claims to be self-consistent, with no discrepancies or changes (Sura 4:82; 10:64; 18:27).  However, it also contains a doctrine of abrogation which teaches that an early communication from Allah can be caused to be forgotten (abrogated or annulled) and changed by a later communication (Sura 2:106; 16:101).

Jews and Christians

The Suras which Muhammad received early, during his initial time at Mecca, tend to be somewhat benign, that is, accepting of Jews, Christians, and other non-Muslims.  This reflects the fact that at that time Muslims were not in control and were vulnerable.  In contrast, the Suras received later, starting at the time when Muhammad began building his army in Medina, are generally more militant and hostile against non-Muslims.  (Suras 4, 9, and 47 are among those from this later period.  Verses from these Suras are quoted at the end of this paper in the section entitled Passages from the Koran and Hadith under the heading "Muslims and nonbelievers.")

Some of those early Suras which have been abrogated are still cited by those who want to portray Islam as a religion of peace.

Satanic verses

The most significant abrogation has to do with a brief denial of strict monotheism on Muhammad's part, known as the "Satanic verses" and found in Sura 53:21-23.  (Many will recall that "The Satanic Verses" was the title of a novel written by Salman Rushdie in 1989, in which his characters pit good against evil and criticize Islam.  The book provoked strong opposition from Muslims.)

Early in his career Muhammad was speaking to leaders in Mecca, who had long believed in many gods.  To gain their favor he spoke of three of their female gods, Lat, Uzza, and Manat, as daughters of Allah, indicating that they were exalted intermediaries who could intercede with Allah.  A few days later he claimed that such statements came directly from Satan and replaced them with a counter statement.

Sura 53:21-23 Original "Satanic verses"	Sura 53:21-23 Replacement
(Dakdok translation, note) 19 Have you seen Al Lat and Al Ozza? 20 And another, the third one, Manat? [21-23] These are the exalted cranes (intermediaries). Whose intercession is to be hoped for.	(Dakdok translation) 19 Have you seen Al Lat and Al Ozza? 20 And another, the third one, Manat? 21 Do you have the male, and does He have the female? 22 This is an unjust division. 23 These are just names that you and your fathers named them …
(Rodwell translation, footnote) [21-23] These are the exalted females, [or, sublime swans, i.e., mounting nearer and nearer to God]. And truly their intercession may be expected.	(Rodwell translation) 21 What? shall ye have male progeny and God female? 22 This were indeed an unfair partition! 23 These are mere names: ye and your fathers named them thus …

Still later, in Sura 22:52-53, Muhammad claims that Allah can test a prophet by allowing Satan to reveal something which Allah must then annul or abrogate.

Some Islamic scholars deny that the original "Satanic verses" were ever spoken by Muhammad.  See Ernest Hahn's excellent article on these verses here.

8.  Historical predictions absent

Regarding predictive prophecies, the Koran does frequently repeat the statement that believers will go to the garden while nonbelievers will go to the fire.  However, it does not contain any truly historical predictions (ones that are both specific and long range) like those found in the Bible (for example, Daniel 8;  Daniel 9;  Matthew 24).  In spite of this fact, some Islamic scholars attempt to interpret certain passages in the Koran as historical predictions.

9.  All prophets are human

The Koran mentions dozens of prophets besides Muhammad, most of whom are mentioned in the Bible including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, and Jesus.  The Koran makes no distinction between any of them (Sura 3:81-84; 4:150-152).  Since there are no distinctions between them, Islam claims that they are all, including Jesus, mere human beings.

D.  The Hadith and Sira

Islamic tradition, called the Hadith, claims to be a record of the actions, sayings, and teachings of Muhammad, and focuses on religious doctrine and Islamic law.  It originally existed as oral tradition and was then compiled in written form more than a century after the Koran.  It exists in various redactions.  For example, there are differences between the Hadith of the Sunnis and that of the Shias.  The Hadith is much longer than the Koran, providing detailed guidelines for every aspect of Muslim life.  Because of its great detail, its teachings can supersede the teachings of the Koran.

Since the Koran is considered to be an inspired revelation, the Hadith ranks second to the Koran.  Nevertheless, the information contained in the Hadith is considered essential both for Muslims to live out their religion and for outsiders to understand Islam.

A highly respected Muslim theologian from the late 11th century highlighted the importance of the Hadith as follows:

Know that the key to happiness is to follow the sunna [Muhammad's actions] and to imitate the Messenger of God in all his coming and going, his movement and rest, in his way of eating, his attitude, his sleep and his talk. … That means, you have to sit while putting on trousers, and to stand when winding a turban, and to begin with the right foot when putting on shoes.  (Quoted in Geisler & Saleeb, Answering Islam: The Crescent in Light of the Cross, 2nd ed., Baker, 2002, p. 84)

The Sira, considered by some as a subset of the Hadith, contains historical accounts, especially of battles, and serves as a biography of Muhammad.

E.  The Five Pillars

Historically, five principal aspects of Islam have been described as "The Five Pillars."

Pillar 1 – The profession of faith

This is known as the Shahada (testimony) and, for Sunnis, consists of two clauses, the first clause about Allah and the second clause about Muhammad.  It affirms the following: "There is no god but Allah and Muhammad is his prophet."  It serves as the entrance into Islam and must be professed at least once in each Muslim's life, from the heart and with sincerity.  Muslims repeat this profession frequently in their prayers.  Even though an individual might make this statement, if his life is not consistent with Islamic teachings, he is considered an unbeliever.

According to some, certain Shia groups add a third clause to this affirmation.  This third clause affirms Ali as Muhammad's rightful successor by stating that "Ali is the guidance (Wali) of God."

Pillar 2 – Prayer

Muslims are required to pray at five specific times during the day, preferably at the mosque where the Imam leads the attendees in prescribed prayers in Arabic.  For Muslims prayer is a precisely governed ritual including rules for cleansing, how and when to stand and kneel, what to say in each position, what direction to face, etc.  Prayers are made facing the Kaaba, the cubical shrine in the court of the Great Mosque in Mecca, Saudi Arabia.

Today Muslims frequently neglect some of the required prayers.  However, Friday noon prayers are well attended and are accompanied by a sermon from the Imam delivered partly in Arabic and partly in the local language.  This Friday sermon instructs the faithful and (depending on the country) molds group opinion on social and political issues.

Pillar 3 – Taxes

These taxes are based on certain percentages of the value of various types of belongings.  In Muslim countries these taxes are collected by the state (although this varies from one state to the next), and used to help the poor, among other things.

Pillar 4 – Fasting

This is required from sunrise to sunset during the month of Ramadan, the 9th month of the Islamic calendar.  (Meals are eaten before sunrise and after sunset.)

Pillar 5 – Pilgrimage to Mecca

Each Muslim must travel to Mecca once in his lifetime (assuming he can afford it and his family can afford his absence), during the month of Dhual-Hijjah, the 12th month of the Islamic calendar.  There he participates in several prescribed activities which involve traveling to Mina and Arafat and offering a sacrifice at Muzdalifah.

F.  Absolute Sovereignty

Islam teaches that Allah decrees all things.  In other words, Allah has total, arbitrary sovereignty and thus causes all good and all evil.  In some people's lives, Allah "writes" (decrees) belief and obedience.  In others' he "writes" disbelief and disobedience.

Whomsoever Allah guides, he is the one who follows the right way; and whomsoever He causes to err, these are the losers.  And certainly We have created for hell many of the jinn and the men …   (Sura 7:178-179)

… He causes to err whom He pleases and guides whom He pleases …  (Sura 16:93, compare 35:8)

No evil befalls on the earth nor in your own souls, but it is in a book before We bring it into existence; surely that is easy to Allah …  (Sura 57:22)

According to Islamic tradition found in the Hadith, two disputants came to Muhammad.  The first man believed that Allah decrees good but not evil; the second believed that Allah decrees both good and evil.  Muhammad said

The decree necessarily determines all that is good and all that is sweet and all that is bitter, and that is my decision between you.  (Arthur Jeffery, Islam: Muhammad and His Religion, Bobbs-Merrill, 1958, p. 149-150)

Muhammad then told the first man

If Allah Most High had not willed that there be disobedience, He would not have created the Devil.  (ibid.)

In 2004 the largest tsunami ever recorded devastated North Sumatra in Indonesia where most of the residents are Muslims.  Local news coverage included a woman declaring, "It's all written in heaven, what can we do?"  Her statement reflects the teaching of the Koran:

… no one whose life is lengthened has his life lengthened, nor is aught diminished of one's life, but it is all in a book …  (Sura 35:11)

In spite of this emphasis on Allah's total sovereignty, Islam also teaches that each person is responsible for his own beliefs and actions.

Whoever disbelieves, he shall be responsible for his disbelief, and whoever does good, they prepare (good) for their own souls ….  (Sura 30:44)

Many aspects of the Muslim's daily life are regulated by the Koran and the Hadith, and each Muslim is expected to exhibit humility, justice, and love toward his fellow Muslims.  Each individual will stand before Allah for final judgment of how he has lived his life.  It is obvious that such judgment does not square with Allah's total, arbitrary sovereignty as explained above.

G.  Divisions

Islam has a number of sub-groups which govern themselves not only by the Koran, but also by their own versions of the Hadith as well as their own community consensus.

1.  The Two Principle Divisions, Sunni and Shia

Sunni		Shia
Muhammad	Founder	Muhammad
Abu Bakr (elected caliph) Omar (elected caliph) Uthman (elected caliph) Ali (elected caliph)	Subsequent Leaders	True succession is through the family, so Ali, first cousin of Muhammad (married Fatima, Muhammad's daughter) should have been Muhammad's first successor.
Imam is a scholar and worship leader, and gives the Friday sermon at the mosque.	Historically	Imam is a ruler (similar to a "pope"). Ayatollah is a highly revered scholar, supposedly chosen by Allah as an example for Muslims since he reflects the attributes of Allah. In 874 the 12th Imam was "hidden" then rulers (ulame) represented the hidden Imam.
Saudi Arabia is officially Sunni, or more precisely, Wahhabi.  Shias are persecuted.  Religious police patrol the streets to enforce strict adherence to Islamic practice. The Islamic State (ISIS/ISIL) is a violent Sunni regime which persecutes non-sunnis, suppresses women, suppresses education in the sciences, and regularly uses captives of war as sex slaves.	A few sample governments	Iraq: In spite of the fact that Iraq was predominately Shia, during his 24 year reign Saddam Hussein put many Sunni Arabs in powerful positions and brutally oppressed Shias. Iran: Previously Sunni, Iran became formally Shia in the 1500s – a forced conversion by decree of the leader Shah Ismail I. Syria: President Bashar al-Assad is a member of the Shia Alawite sect, but most of the population is Sunni.
The final leader (Mhadi, guided one) will appear. Islamic worldwide triumph. Final judgment.	At the end	The 12th Imam returns as leader (Mhadi, guided one). Islamic worldwide triumph. Final judgment.

Sunni

The largest of these groups (perhaps 75 to 85 percent) is the Sunni.  Sunni Muslims are also the most widespread geographically.  Their name comes from the word Sunnah referring to the traditions of Muhammad, to which they claim to adhere faithfully.  For this reason they are also sometimes called "orthodox" Muslims.  Since Muhammad did not appoint a successor, the Sunnis believed that successors should be elected.

Wahhabism is a large branch of Sunni Islam which arose in the 1700s and was concentrated originally in Saudi Arabia.  It is characterized by strict and uncompromising adherence to the Koran and the worship of Allah alone.  Thus it is against the veneration of early Muslim holy sites.  Its goal is to recover Islam as practiced by the first three generations of Muslims.  The movement is a violent form of Islam devoted to world-wide jihad.  One of its members was Osama bin Laden.  The movement's ideology is displayed in the so-called Islamic State (ISIS or ISIL).  In America its views are represented by the Council on American Islamic Relations (CAIR).

Shia

The second largest group is the Shia which makes up a majority of the Muslim population in, for example, Iran and Iraq.  Shiites believe that Muhammad's successor should have been Ali, who was closest to Muhammad's bloodline, so they reject the first three Caliphs.  The Shia were called "Shiat Ali," that is, the "Party of Ali."

Through rituals and mourning, Shias continue to commemorate the violent martyrdom of Muhammad's grandson, Husayn.

Shiites believe that the Koran was created and that Allah cannot do evil.

Shiites hold that there have been 12 Imams (divinely appointed leaders).  They believe that the 12th Imam, who disappeared in AD 874, did not die, but was removed (hidden) by God and will return to effect the triumph of Islam and trigger the final judgment.

Governments and population

The maps below contrast Sunni and Shia in both governments and population.

2.  Other groups

Sufis

These are Islamic mystics, and they have spread worldwide.  Their basic beliefs are closer to pantheism than they are to orthodox Islam.  They engage in an allegorical interpretation of the Koran.  Through asceticism, contemplation, and self-renunciation they seek to experience God directly.

Popular Islam Today

Goldmann (see bibliography below) describes a "folk Islam," which he contrasts both with the more strict orthodox Islam described above and with a secularized and materialistic version of Islam.  He suggests that the majority of Muslims today are in this "folk" category, and characterizes them as mystical and superstitious.

An offshoot

In addition to the above groups (and other sub-groups of Islam) there is an offshoot known as the Baha'i Faith, founded in the mid 1800s in Persia (Iran) when Baha'ullah claimed to be the returned 12th Imam of Shiite Islam.  Baha'i, which has spread throughout the world, holds to the basic unity of all religions.

Black Muslims – not true Muslims

A brief word about Black Muslims seems appropriate, since they are not true Muslims. The Nation of Islam, now known as the World Community of Islam in the West, was founded by Wallace D. Fard (Farad) in Detroit during the early 1930's and gained prominence through such leaders as Elijah Muhammad, Malcolm X, and Louis Farakhan.  They believe that Allah is a physical black man and mock the idea that God is spirit.  Both Wallace Fard and Elijah Muhammad have been called Allah, and according to Louis Farakhan, there are 24 black men who are gods.  They believe that, in a sense, all black men are gods by virtue of their color.  Obviously, they are not strictly monotheistic, and thus are not Islamic in the traditional sense.

H.  State, Jihad, Sharia Law

Islam is not merely a personal religion, but is also a civil religion, indeed, a state.  It is an earthly kingdom with its own states, law, and other social institutions.  Muslims are not interested in converting individuals.  Rather, they are interested collectively in controlling other societies in order to govern them by Islamic principles (which, they say, will lead to individual conversions later).  This is Islamic jihad, or active struggle, using armed force as needed.  Thus the concept of separation of church and state is entirely foreign to Islam.  Islam is a religion in charge of a state.

The government of Muslim countries varies.  Some countries are strictly Muslim, being governed by Muslim leaders (Imams and Ayatollahs) who apply Sharia law.  Other countries are a mix of Sharia law and secular law.  Sharia law is made up of the teachings of the Koran as well as the Hadith as interpreted by the particular Muslim sects involved.  Social services are an essential part of the Islamic community.

Although Sharia law varies somewhat from one Muslim country to the next, it is very comprehensive covering everything religious and civil, including such public areas as crime, politics, trade, finance, marriage, inheritance, and dress codes, as well as such personal areas as sexuality, hygiene, diet, prayer, and fasting.  Under Sharia law, a non-Muslim must pay a tax to live in the country.  Christians are not allowed to evangelize or build churches.  A Muslim woman may not marry a man who is not a Muslim.  A Christian must allow his child to marry a Muslim and convert to Islam, but a Muslim cannot let his child marry a Christian or convert to Christianity.  In many interpretations of Sharia law, the penalty for apostasy (converting to a different religion or becoming non-religious) is death.  Liquor, gambling, and lending money at interest are expressly forbidden.

Muslims living in the U.S.A. often take many more freedoms than those living in Muslim countries.

Is Islam a peaceful religion?  Here is the opinion of E. M. Caner, a former Muslim.

There is little substantiation for the position that Islam is a religion of peace. In 1,300 years Islam has never peacefully coexisted with other faiths in any country where the Muslim population was in the majority. Even though Turkey is used as an example of this peaceful coexistence, churches throughout the country are routinely closed or burned.  (Ergun Mehmet Caner, When Worldviews Collide, LifeWay Press, 2005, p. 135)

I.  Muslim Culture

Particular Muslim cultures have many things in common with each other, especially those aspects of culture clearly taught in the Koran.  But various Muslim cultures can also have significant differences depending on their division (Sunni, Shia, etc.), their country, and the teachings heard at the local mosque.

It is not uncommon for Muslims to consider dogs unclean and cats clean.

Treatment of women

The Koran contains a number of passages which appear to indicate that men and women are treated equally, such as Sura 3:195; 4:124; 16:97; 33:35, 73; 40:40.  But these passages state how Allah views and rewards both sexes.

When it comes to how humans are to treat each other, for example in matters of marriage, inheritance, and court witness, the picture given in the Koran is quite unbalanced.  For example:

• A Muslim man may have four wives (Sura 4:3; 66:1-5)
• Disobedient wives are to be isolated and beaten (Sura 4:34).
• A daughter's inheritance should be half as much as a son's (Sura 4:11, compare 4:176)
• It takes evidence from two women to equal the evidence from one man (Sura 2:282; see also Hadith 1:301)
• Touching a women makes a man unclean, so before he prays he is required to purify himself with water or dirt if no water is available.  (This dirt is described using such phrases as "pure earth," "wholesome dust," "fine surface sand," or "clean sand" in various translations) (Sura 5:6)

In addition, tradition (the Hadith) often furthers this inequality between men and women.  A Muslim man's wives can be non-Muslim.  However, a Muslim woman must marry a Muslim man.  In addition to his four wives, a Muslim man may have temporary wives.  The man may divorce his wife without reason.  In paradise the man may live with many maidens, but there is no corresponding promise for women.

A Muslim man, according to the Civil Code of Iran, may marry a girl as young as 9 years old  (Robert Spencer, The Truth about Muhammad: Founder of the World's Most Intolerant Religion, Regnery, 2006, p. 171).

In an Afghan refugee camp more than two out of three second-grade girls were either married or engaged, and virtually all the girls who were beyond second grade were already married.  (op. cit., p. 172)

Women are seen as a major cause of evil.  They cannot pray nor fast during their monthly menstrual period, and thus they are deficient in their religious requirements with the result that few women reach paradise (Bukhari Hadith 1:301).

Of course, Muslims in certain places and certain groups are much more egalitarian.  But, such groups are in danger of being considered "unbelievers" by more strict Muslims.

J.  Calendar

Most Islamic countries use both a religious and a civil calendar.  The religious calendar is not synchronized with our Gregorian calendar (or with any solar calendar) because it is a strict lunar calendar.  The lunar cycle is very close to only 29.5 days.  Of course, seasons are determined by the sun rather than the moon, and a year is approximately 365.25 days long, which is a little over 121/3 lunar cycles.

Nearly all other calendars employ some mechanism to keep certain months coordinated with certain seasons and thus they end up with a year that is coordinated with the sun.  This is done in various ways.  For example, in our Gregorian calendar, it is done by adding a few days to most of the twelve months to end up with 365 days most years and 366 days other years.  As another example, in the Jewish religious calendar it is done by adding an extra month at the end of certain years.

However, the Islamic religious calendar, being a strictly lunar calendar and limited to twelve months (usually alternating between 30 and 29 days) has a total of only 354 days for the year.  Thus the Islamic year is roughly 11 days short of the solar year.  No adjustment is made either within the months or at the end of twelve months to coordinate with the seasons.  The months gradually shift a little earlier each year in comparison with a solar calendar.  For example, the month Ramadan regresses through all four seasons every 32 solar years.

Year 1 of the Islamic calendar was A.D. 622 of the Gregorian calendar – the year Muhammad fled from Mecca to Medina.  This flight is referred to as the "Hijra," so years in the Islamic calendar are noted with the abbreviation AH for Anno Hegirae, Latin for "year of the Hijra."

Various Islamic countries that use a religious lunar calendar differ in their method of detecting the beginning of each month and the new year.

The civil calendar used by Iran and Afghanistan is a solar calendar in which the first six months have 31 days, then five months have 30, then the twelfth month has 29 days (30 in leap years) for a total of 365 or 366 days, just like the Gregorian calendar.

K.  Comparison of Islamic Teachings

Islam affirms certain beliefs which can be contrasted with the Bible.

The Bible	Doctrine	Islamic Teachings
God is personal and knowable. God is a trinity, that is, three persons, Father, Son, Holy Spirit, having one essence (trinitarian monotheism). God is not only Creator, Master, and Judge, but also Father, Savior, and Friend.	God's nature	Allah is personal, but not knowable. Allah is one person, the only God (strict monotheism). The notion of the trinity is illogical and blasphemous. Allah is Creator, Master, and Judge, but not Father.  The notion of God as Father is understood as physical fatherhood and thus is considered blasphemous. The Muslim relationship to Allah is primarily that of a servant.
God is majestic and exercises ultimate sovereignty. God is self sufficient and independent. God is holy, just and merciful. God is responsive to human need and compassionate. God speaks and ministers directly to all humans.	God's attributes	Allah has total, arbitrary sovereignty. He is majestic, self sufficient and independent. Allah is just and merciful. Allah is responsive to human need (contrasts with previous Arabic fatalism) and compassionate (inconsistent with total, arbitrary sovereignty). Allah never speaks directly to a human (Sura 42:51).
God created everything by sheer command. God sustains the universe. The universe is designed and orderly. God is present everywhere, but transcendent	The universe	Allah created everything in six time periods (Sura 7:54; 11:7). Allah sustains the universe. The universe is designed and orderly. Allah is present everywhere, but transcendent.
God created man unique (above the animals, in God's image) Man fell and death and sin passed to all humans Man is lower than the angels Man is a sinner both by nature and by practice, and thus is separated from God	Man and sin	Allah created jinn (spirit beings) from fire.  Jinn can assume bodily form and many are more evil than man. Allah later created man in several steps, first from clay (Sura 6:2; 15:26), then from a seed (Sura 16:4; 18:37), then several other steps. (Sura 22:5; 23:12-14) Man is above the angels. Adam sinned (Sura 7:19-22) but was forgiven. Sin was not passed on to the rest of the human race; there was no fall. Man is basically good, but ignorant, weak, and forgetful. Man's actions are frail and faltering, proud and rebellious. There are great sins and small sins (Sura 4:31).
Jesus was born of the virgin Mary Jesus did many miracles Jesus Christ is God (the unique Son of God, the second person of the trinity) Jesus Christ died for our sins and rose from the grave	Jesus Christ	Jesus was born of the virgin Mary Jesus did many miracles Jesus Christ was merely one of the great prophets (he was not divine and is not God's Son). Allah saved Jesus from crucifixion (all true prophets are saved from distress and vindicated); Jesus never died on a cross.
Man must accept the prophets' message, repent, and trust (have faith in) Jesus Christ (this places man positionally in God's family, he is re-born and his sins are forgiven). The saved have assurance of salvation. The saved are both servants and children (by adoption) of God. The saved will be transformed and enjoy worship and holy fellowship in heaven. The lost are condemned to burn in hellfire.	Salvation	Salvation is a combintion of belief and good deeds. One must believe the prophet's message, repent, and submit to Allah's will.  This removes sin and restores the individual to the sinless state he had at birth. Besides belief, salvation is achieved by conforming to the Five Pillars and having more good deeds than bad (Sura 4:31; 23:102-103; 101:6-11).  "Surely good deeds take away evil deeds" (Sura 11:114; compare 29:11). One's final destiny is not known until the day of resurrection, so there is no assurance of salvation in this life.  On this day of judgment his good deeds will be weighed against his bad deeds (Sura 39:60-75). Dying in jihad leads to a prominent place in paradise. Paradise consists of a garden of earthly pleasures for eternity while the condemned will burn in hellfire (Sura 4:56; 7:35-50; 32:19).
Satan fell due to pride.	Satan	Satan fell due to pride when he refused to give due honor to Adam (Sura 2:34; 7:11-18; 15:26-44; 17:61; 18:50, 31:71-78; etc.).
Muhammad is a false prophet (because he rejects the deity of Jesus Christ).	Muhammad	Muhammad calls himself a "warner" (Sura 38:70). Muhammad is the last and greatest of the prophets, the one who received the Koran from God through the angel Gabriel. Muslims generally do not deify nor worship Muhammad.  However, he is to be obeyed (Sura 3:32; 5:92, and many others) and spoken to respecfully (Sura 49:1-3).  He is also considered an intercessor for gaining forgiveness (Sura 4:64).  In some Muslim circles Muhammad is referred to as "Savior of the World" and "Lord of the Universe." Muhammad did not perform any miracles, but it is said that the Koran is his miracle.
The Old and New Testaments are God's word, the final written revelation, the teachings of which are faithfully preserved in the many manuscripts.	Scripture	The Old and New Testaments have been corrupted by Jews and Christians. The Koran is Allah's word, the final revelation, which corrects the misinterpretations found in the Old and New Testaments.

The sections in the above chart on "Man and sin," "Jesus Christ," and "Salvation" make it obvious that the gospel according to Islam is fundamentally different than the gospel taught in the New Testament.  Clearly, Paul's warning about God's condemnation applies to those who promote Islam:

… even if we or an angel from heaven should preach a gospel other than the one we preached to you, let him be eternally condemned!  (Galatians 1:8)

L.  Is Allah equal to God the Father?

The Koran says,

… our God and your God is One, and to Him do we submit.  (Sura 29:46)

However, it is easy to see that since Islam is strictly monotheistic, Allah is not equivalent to the triune God of biblical Christianity.  (See the paper The Trinity.)  Yet, some would ask:

• Is it legitimate to equate Allah with God the Father?
• Do Muslims have, so to speak, one-third of the Christian God?
• Do Muslims worship the God of Abraham (as they claim)?
• Are they like the Old Testament saints?

The answer to all four of these questions is, No.  This negative answer is required by the Muslim's beliefs about Jesus Christ.

1.  Is Old Testament monotheism the same as Islamic monotheism?

Keep in mind that there is a major difference between being unaware of Jesus Christ on the one hand, and rejecting Jesus Christ on the other.  Early Old Testament believers were probably unaware that there would be a divine Messiah – those prophecies would come later.  Even later Old Testament believers, those who were aware of the prophecies that God would send a divine Messiah (one who would be called "Mighty God," Isaiah 9:6), did not know what earthly name would identify that Messiah.  However, this lack of information on the part of the Old Testament saints is far different than rejection of Jesus.

2.  Islamic rejection of Jesus as God

In Islam, even though Jesus is accepted as a prophet, he is seen merely as a human prophet like all the other prophets.  Islam's strict monotheism keeps it from ever recognizing the deity of Jesus Christ.  In other words, Muslims accept Jesus as human, but reject him as divine.  In fact, Muslims assert that Jesus never claimed to be divine and that the claim of divinity came from his followers.  (See the paper Jesus' Claim of Deity.)

Islam teaches that God will forgive any sin except the sin of proclaiming that Allah has a partner, that is, an equal.  So when the Christian says that Jesus is divine just as the Father is divine, the Muslim accuses him of committing an unpardonable sin (Sura 4:116).

This is exactly the situation the nonbelieving Jews were in during the time of Jesus.  These Jews thought they worshipped the true God, but they rejected Jesus as God's divine Son.  Jesus confronted them and explained that when you reject the Son you also reject the Father.

For this reason the Jews tried all the harder to kill him; not only was he breaking the Sabbath, but he was even calling God his own Father, making himself equal with God. Jesus gave them this answer: "I tell you the truth, the Son can do nothing by himself; he can do only what he sees his Father doing, because whatever the Father does the Son also does. For the Father loves the Son and shows him all he does. Yes, to your amazement he will show him even greater things than these. For just as the Father raises the dead and gives them life, even so the Son gives life to whom he is pleased to give it. Moreover, the Father judges no one, but has entrusted all judgment to the Son, that all may honor the Son just as they honor the Father. He who does not honor the Son does not honor the Father, who sent him.  (John 5:18-23;  Compare John 13:20; 15:23;  1 John 2:22-23, and 2 John 9)

The clause "just as they honor the Father" requires that the honor due Jesus is not merely honor as a prophet, but is honor as deity.  Lenski, discussing the essential equality of the Father and the Son in the context of this passage, says:

… here in the clause, "even as they honor the Father," he [Jesus] asserts that equality in the clearest possible manner.  (R. C. H. Lenski, The Interpretation of St. John's Gospel, Augsburg Pub. House, 1942, p. 387)

Even if this clause, "just as they honor the Father," were not in the passage, our understanding of this honor would have to be the same since (1) in the context Jesus is calling God his Father and thus "making himself equal with God," (2) Jesus claims to do whatever the Father does, even giving life to whomever he pleases, and (3) the Father has "entrusted all judgment to the Son."  Any so-called honor given to Jesus as a mere prophet is in reality dishonor because it fails to honor him as God.  Remember Jesus' words,

No one comes to the Father except through me  (John 14:6)

He who rejects me rejects him who sent me  (Luke 10:16)

It might be tempting to say, "Well, at least they believe in God," but their "God" should not be equated with the first person of the trinity, the Father.  According to the teaching of Jesus, cited above, it is not possible to believe in the Father and at the same time reject the Son.  This means that Islam's Allah is not the same as the Father, for they deny the Son and therefore do not have the Father.  Since their Allah is not the true, triune God of the Bible, and because their Allah is not the Father, their Allah is, in reality, a false god, Muhammad is a false prophet, and Islam is a false religion.

The same applies to Judaism, both during the time of Christ and today.  Judaism rejects the deity of Jesus Christ.  In doing so, it also rejects the Father and thus, like Islam, is another false religion.

It should be noted, however, that when a person who speaks Arabic gets saved by trusting in Jesus Christ as his savior, he will use the word "Allah" when he speaks of God, for this is his word for God.  In fact, Christians and Jews who speak Arabic have for millennia used the word "Allah" to refer to God.  The point we are making here is that this new believer's Allah is not Islam's Allah, but is the true Allah, the first person of the trinity.

Simply put, adherents of Islam are lost.  Muslims need us Christians to love them.  And, as of first importance, we need to share with them the gospel of Jesus Christ, who is God, and who died for their sins too.

… in Christ all the fullness of the Deity lives in bodily form (Colossians 2:9)

For what I received I passed on to you as of first importance: that Christ died for our sins according to the Scriptures, that he was buried, that he was raised on the third day according to the Scriptures …  (1 Corinthians 15:3-4)

3.  Roman Catholic confusion of Allah with God the Father

It is surprising, indeed, when the Roman Catholic Church speaks as though Allah and God the Father are identical, and says Muslims are saved in spite of their rejection of Jesus Christ as God.

The plan of salvation also includes those who acknowledge the Creator. In the first place among these there are the Moslems, who, professing to hold the faith of Abraham, along with us adore the one and merciful God, who on the last day will judge mankind.  (Vatican II, Lumen Gentium 16)

Upon the Moslems, too, the Church looks with esteem. They adore one God, living and enduring, merciful and all-powerful, Maker of heaven and earth and Speaker to men. They strive to submit wholeheartedly even to His inscrutable decrees, just as did Abraham, with whom the Islamic faith is pleased to associate itself. Though they do not acknowledge Jesus as God, they revere Him as a prophet. They also honor Mary, His virgin mother; at times they call on her, too, with devotion. In addition they await the day of judgment when God will give each man his due after raising him up. Consequently, they prize the moral life, and give worship to God especially through prayer, almsgiving, and fasting.  (Vatican II, Nostra Aetate 3)

M.  Passages from the Koran and Hadith

Quotations in the left column are from The Qur'an Translation, translated by M. H. Shakir, 15th U.S. Edition 2005, published by Tahrike Tarsile Aur'an, Inc., Elmhurst, New York.

Quotations in the right column are from The Generous QUR'AN: An accurate, modern English translation of the Qur'an, Islam's holiest book, translated by Usama K. Dakdok, published by Usama Dakdok Publishing, Venice, Florida, 2009.  (Dakdok's translation is very literal.  He identifies many non-Arabic words and includes many notes which highlight Islamic doctrines and points of difference with the Bible.)

In the following quotations "Isa" = Jesus, and "Uzair" = Ezra.  Verse numbers vary somewhat from translation to translation.

M. H. Shakir Translation

Dakdok Translation

1.  That the Old and New Testaments are incomplete and corrupted, further revelation from Muhammad

	3:71  O followers of the Book! [Jews and Christians] Why do you confound the truth with the falsehood and hide the truth while you know?	3:71  O People of the Book [Jews and Christians], why do you clothe the truth with vanity and hide the truth, and you know?
	3:78  Most surely there is a party amongst those who distort the Book with their tongue that you may consider it to be (a part) of the Book, and they say, It is from Allah, while it is not from Allah; and they tell a lie against Allah whilst they know.	3:78  And surely among them is a group who will twist their tongues with the book in order that you may think it is from the book, and it is not from the book. And they say this is from Allah, and it is not from Allah; and they say the lies against Allah, and they know.
	4:56  (As for) those who disbelieve in Our communications, We shall make them enter fire; so oft as their skins are thoroughly burned, We will change them for other skins, that they may taste the chastisement; surely Allah is Mighty, Wise.	4:56  Surely those who become infidels in our verses, we will roast them [in] a fire so often as their skins are burned; then we will change them for other skins so that they may taste the torment. Surely Allah is dear, wise.
	5:15  O followers of the Book! indeed Our Apostle has come to you making clear to you much of what you concealed of the Book and passing over much; indeed, there has come to you light and a clear Book from Allah; 16 With it Allah guides him who will follow His pleasure into the ways of safety and brings them out of utter darkness into light by His will and guides them to the right path.	5:15  O People of the Book, indeed, our messenger came to you to clear up much that you were hiding from the book and pardons you much. Indeed, a light and a clear book came to you from Allah. 16 Allah will guide with it the one who will follow his pleasure to the ways of peace, and he will bring them out of the darkness to the light by his permission. And he will guide them to a straight way.
	12:2  Surely We [Allah] have revealed it – an Arabic Quran – that you may understand. 3 We narrate to you the best of narratives, by Our revealing to you this Quran, though before this you were certainly one of those who did not know.	12:2  Surely we have sent it down, an Arabic Qur'an, perhaps you might understand. 3 We narrate to you the best of the stories by which we reveal to you this Qur'an, and before it you were among the unaware.

2.  That Jesus did not die / did die

	4:157  And their saying: Surely we have killed the Messiah, Isa son of Marium, the Apostle of Allah; and they did not kill him nor did they crucify him, but it appeared to them so (like Isa) and most surely those who differ therein are only in a doubt about it; they have no knowledge respecting it, but only follow a conjecture, and they killed him not for sure. 158 Nay! Allah took him up to Himself; and Allah is Mighty, Wise.	4:157  And their saying, "Surely we killed the Christ 'Isa, son of Mary, the messenger of Allah." And they did not kill him, and they did not salaba [crucify] him; but it was made to appear to them, and surely those who disagree about him are in doubt of him. They do not have any knowledge of him except following the conjecture, and they did not kill him for certain. 158 Yet Allah raised him up to himself. And Allah was dear, wise.
	5:117  [Isa is speaking to Allah] I did not say to them aught save what Thou didst enjoin with me: That serve Allah, my Lord and your Lord, and I was a witness of them so long as I was among them, but when Thou didst cause me to die, Thou wert the watcher over them, and Thou are witness of all things. [Note: A. J. Arberry's translation interprets "cause me to die" as "take me to Thyself."]	5:117  [Isa is speaking to Allah] I did not tell them except what you had commanded me, 'That serve Allah, my lord and your lord,' and I was a witness among them as long as I was with them. So when you caused me to die, you were the watcher over them, and you are the witness of all things.

3.  No trinity; Allah has no son; Jesus only a human prophet ("apostle")

	4:171  O followers of the Book! do not exceed the limits in your religion, and do not speak (lies) against Allah, but (speak) the truth; the Messiah, Isa son of Marium is only an apostle of Allah and His Word which He communicated to Marium and a spirit from Him; believe therefore in Allah and His apostles, and say not, Three. Desist, it is better for you; Allah is only one God: far be it from His glory that He should have a son; …	4:171  O People of the Book, do not exaggerate in your religion and do not speak against Allah, except the truth. Surely the Christ 'Isa, son of Mary, is only a messenger of Allah and his word, which he cast to Mary, and a spirit from him. So believe in Allah and his messengers, and do not say, "Three." Cease; it is better for you. Surely Allah is only one god. Praise be to him that there would be to him a son. …
	5:72  Certainly they disbelieve who say: Surely Allah, He is the Messiah, son of Marium; and the Messiah said: O Children of Israel! serve Allah, my Lord and your Lord. Surely whoever associates (others) with Allah, then Allah has forbidden to him the garden, and his abode is the fire; and there shall be no helpers for the unjust. 73 Certainly they disbelieve who say: Surely Allah is the third (person) of the Three; and there is no god but the one God, and if they desist not from what they say, a painful chastisement shall befall those among them who disbelieve. 74 Will they not then turn to Allah and ask His forgiveness? And Allah is Forgiving, Merciful. 75 The Messiah, son of Marium is but an apostle; apostles before him have indeed passed away; and his mother was a truthful woman; they both used to eat food. See how We make the communications clear to them, then behold, how they are turned away.	5:72  Infidels, indeed, are those who said, "Surely Allah is the Christ, son of Mary." And the Christ said, "O children of Israel, serve Allah, my lord and your lord." Surely whoever partners with Allah, so indeed, Allah forbids him the garden. And his abode is the fire, and the unjust will have no helpers. 73 Infidels, indeed, are those who said, "Surely Allah is the third of three." And there is no god except one god, and if they do not refrain from what they are saying, a painful torment will touch those who become infidels among them. 74 Do they not repent to Allah and ask his forgiveness? And Allah is forgiving, merciful. 75 The Christ, son of Mary, is nothing except a messenger; indeed, other messengers have gone before him, and his mother is a siddiqah [person of integrity]. They were eating the food. Look at how we show the verses to them, then look at how they turn away!
	6:101  Wonderful Originator of the heavens and the earth! How could He have a son when He has no consort ….	6:101  The inventor of the heavens and the earth, how can he have a son when he has no female companion? …
	9:30  And the Jews say: Uzair is the son of Allah; and the Christians say: The Messiah is the son of Allah; these are the words of their mouths; they imitate the saying of those who disbelieved before; may Allah destroy them; how they are turned away! 31 They have taken their doctors of law and their monks for lords besides Allah, and (also) the Messiah son of Marium and they were enjoined that they should serve one God only, there is no god but He; far from His glory be what they set up (with Him).	9:30  And the Jews said, "Uzair is the son of Allah." And the Nasara (Christians) said, "The Christ is the son of Allah." This is their saying with their mouths; they repeat the sayings of those who became infidels before. Allah engages in war with them. How perverted they are! 31 They take their rabbis and their monks as lords rather than Allah and the Christ, the son of Mary. And they are not commanded except to serve one god. There is no god except him. Praise to him above what they partner.
	14:30  And they set up equals with Allah that they may lead (people) astray from His path. Say: Enjoy yourselves, for surely your return is to the fire.	14:30  And they made rivals to Allah to go astray from his way. Say, "Enjoy, so surely your final place is the fire."
	16:20  And those whom they call on besides Allah have not created anything while they are themselves created …	16:20  And those who call on other than Allah, they do not create anything and they are created.
	16:51  And Allah has said: Take not two gods, He is only one God; so of Me alone should you be afraid.	16:51  And Allah said, "Do not take two gods; surely he is only one god. So to me, so fear."
	17:39  … do not associate any other god with Allah lest you should be thrown into hell, blamed, cast away.	17:39  … do not set up with Allah another god, so you will be thrown into hell, blamed and rejected.
	18:4  And warn those who say: Allah has taken a son 5 They have no knowledge of it, nor had their fathers; a grievous word it is that comes out of their mouths; they speak nothing but a lie.	18:4  And he warns those who said, "Allah has taken a son." 5 They have no knowledge of this, neither their fathers, a dreadful word to come out of their mouths that they say except a lie.
	19:88  And they say: The Beneficent God has taken (to Himself) a son. 89 Certainly you have made an abominable assertion: 90 The heavens may almost be rent thereat, and the earth cleave asunder, and the mountains fall down in pieces, 91 That they ascribe a son to the Beneficent God. 92 And it is not worthy of the Beneficent God that He should take (to Himself) a son.	19:88  And they said, "The merciful has taken a son." 89 Indeed, you have brought a wicked thing. 90 The heavens might almost be torn apart from it. And the earth splits, and the mountains fall to pieces 91 because they ascribe a son to the merciful. 92 It must not be to the merciful that he takes a son.
	23:91 Never did Allah take to Himself a son, and never was there with him any (other) god – in that case would each god have certainly taken away what he created, and some of them would certainly have overpowered others; glory be to Allah above what they describe!	23:91  Allah has not taken some son. And there was not any other god with him or else each god would go with what he created, and perhaps some of them will be against the others. Praise be to Allah, above what they describe.
	26:213  So call not upon another god with Allah, lest you be of those who are punished.	26:213  So do not call with Allah another god, so you will become of the tormented.
	37:151  Now surely it is of their own lie that they say: 152 Allah has begotten; and most surely they are liars.	37:151  Is it not surely from their own lie they say, 152 "Allah has birthed." And surely they are liars.

4.  The trinity which Islam rejects is a false trinity: The Father, Mary, and Jesus

5:116  And when Allah will say: O Isa son of Marium! did you say to men, Take me and my mother for two gods besides Allah, he will say: Glory be to Thee, it did not befit me that I should say what I had no right to (say) …

5:116  And when Allah said, "O 'Isa, son of Mary, did you say to the people, 'Take me and my mother as two gods, other than Allah'?" He said, "Praise be unto you. It is not for me that I say what is not true for me; ….

5.  Salvation by good deeds

	4:31 If you shun the great sins which you are forbidden, We will do away with your small sins and cause you to enter an honorable place of entering.	4:31  If you avoid the biggest of which you are forbidden, we will atone for your evils, and we will admit you with a generous entry.
	11:114  … surely good deeds take away evil deeds …	11:114  … Surely good deeds drive away the evil deeds. …
	23:102  Then as for him whose good deeds are preponderant, these are the successful. 103 And as for him whose good deeds are light, these are they who shall have lost their souls, abiding in hell.	23:102  So whose scales are heavy, so those are the prosperous. 103 And whose scales are light, so those are they who lost their souls in hell forever.

6.  Allah and nonbelievers

3:31  Say: If you love Allah, then follow me, Allah will love you and forgive you your faults, and Allah is Forgiving, Merciful. 32 Say: Obey Allah and the Apostle, but if they turn back, then surely Allah does not love the unbelievers.

3:31  Say, "If you were loving Allah, so follow me. Allah will make you loved and forgive you of your sins. And Allah is forgiving, merciful." 32 Say, "Obey Allah and the messenger." So if they turn away, so surely Allah does not love the infidels.

7.  Muslims and nonbelievers

	1:6  Keep us on the right path. 7 The path of those upon whom Thou hast bestowed favors. Not (the path) of those upon whom Thy wrath is brought down [Jews], nor of those who go astray [Christians].	1:5  Guide us to the straight sirat [way], 6 the way of those whom you have graced (the Muslims), not those whom the wrath is against (the Jews), nor the lost ones (the Christians).
	4:89  They desire that you should disbelieve as they have disbelieved, so that you might be (all) alike; therefore take not from among them friends until they fly (their homes) in Allah's way; but if they turn back, then sieze them and kill them wherever you find them, and take not from among them a friend or a helper.	4:89  They desire that you should become infidels as they are infidels so that you should be alike. So do not take any of them for friends until they emigrate for the sake of Allah. So if they turn away, so sieze them and kill them wherever you find them, and do not take from them as friends or helpers.
	8:12  … I will cast terror into the hearts of those who disbelieve. Therefore strike off their heads and strike off every fingertip of them.	8:12  … I will cast a terror into the hearts of those who become infidels. So strike above their necks (decapitation), and strike off (chop off) every finger from them.
	8:39  And fight with them until there is no more persecution and religion should be only for Allah; but if they desist, then surely Allah sees what they do.	8:39  And engage in war with them until there will not be sedition and the religion will be completely to Allah. So, if they cease, so surely Allah sees what they do.
	9:5  … when the sacred months have passed away, then slay the idolaters wherever you find them, and take them captives and besiege them and lie in wait for them in every ambush, then if they repent and keep up prayer and pay the poor-rate, leave their way free to them; surely Allah is Forgiving, Merciful.	9:5  … when the forbidden months are passed, so kill the polytheists wherever you find them, and take them [as captives] and besiege them and lay wait for them with every kind of ambush; so if they repent and perform the prayer and bring the legal alms, so leave their way free. Surely Allah is forgiving, merciful.
	9:123  O you who believe! fight those of the unbelievers who are near to you and let them find in you hardness; and know that Allah is with those who guard (against evil).	9:123  O you who have believed, engage in war against the infidels who are near to you. And let them find in you harshness, and know that Allah is with the fearer.
	47:35  And be not slack so as to cry for peace and you have the upper hand ….	47:35  So do not be weak and do not call for peace when you have the upper hand. …

Hadith (Bukhari) 4:196 — Allah 's Apostle said, "I have been ordered to fight with the people till they say, 'None has the right to be worshipped but Allah,' …  (from sacred-texts.com, see bibliography)

Hadith (Bukhari) 4:177 — Allah's Apostle said, "The Hour will not be established until you fight with the Jews, and the stone behind which a Jew will be hiding will say. "O Muslim! There is a Jew hiding behind me, so kill him."  (from sacred-texts.com, see bibliography)

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Annotated Bibliography